6.1 Synopsis
Communities in the buffer zone face restrictions on the livelihood activities in terms of land available for agriculture, use of forest resources and constraints on the development of settlements.
Geographic location place many of the buffer zone communities at a disadvantage in economic terms as well as accessing basic services, often resulting in a high dependency on forest resources, higher levels of poverty and food insecurity.
The diverse ethnic make-up of the buffer zone communes creates different challenges and opportunities in relation to forest management due to their different tenure, cultural approaches to farming and common pool resources management, gender equality and access to services such as health and education.
Policies and plans to promote collaborative management and establish PES systems face challenges in their effectiveness of meeting the twin goals of ecosystem resilience and livelihood security, possibly with high transaction costs and benefits of managing forests.
Access to financial and material resources for livelihood development are restricted within the buffer zone communities, and there are significant barriers to local communities entering unfamiliar markets (e.g. tourism) or developing non-agricultural income-generating activities and adding value to existing agricultural produce.
The AHP is in genetic isolation and fragmentation, higher risk of species extinction and increased vulnerability to stochastic and catastrophic events. In summary, they are highly vulnerable and will likely experience high rates of habitat fragmentation, degradation and species extinction in the near future processes which will be exacerbated by climate change.
The SGP packages (community development, community outreach and conservation awareness) are designed to support capacity building within the local communities and direct financial and technical assistance to farmers, resource users and through a mix of market-orientated and resource management approaches and building resilience against the immediate to mid-term shocks which will arise from climate change and increasing global commodity prices by:
- Building local community capacity in particular using existing community organizational structures such as the cooperatives;
- Raising awareness of the natural values and potential economic benefits of the AHP;
- Strengthening the commune cooperatives as common pool resource management institutions;
- Market led approaches to product (agricultural and NTFP) development intended to capture greater value at the commune level and reduce transactions costs by shortening value chains;
- Providing micro-packages to support individual initiatives and address specific micro-barriers to developing income generating initiatives;
- Raising awareness of the impact of climate change and enabling local level planning for mitigation and adaption;
- Supporting the development of women groups in management of forest resources;
- Buidling the communities capacity in agroforestry and related techniques
- Enhancing the traditional skills in particular the Bahnar basket weaving, brocade and music instrument.
Gender equality is an important and cross-cutting objective of the ACB SGP and SG interventions will be specifically geared towards supporting women and women’s groups in all aspects of the small grant packages.
6.2 Economic Profile
In the buffer zone communes of the KKKNP, people’s livelihoods are mainly based on agriculture, formal economic activities have not been developed. There are 11 private enterprises and 3 cooperatives registered to operate (Table 7). In which, 02 enterprises mainly operate in the forestry; 03 enterprises operating mainly in the construction activities; 03 enterprises mainly operate in the field of trading construction materials and petroleum and 01 company operates in livestock breeding. However, only two forestry companies are large and labor intensive in planting, tending and protecting forests. The rest are just small companies, employing less than 10 employees.
Table 6. Number of enterprises in buffer zone communes
| District | Commune | Private Enterprise | State Enterprises | Cooperative |
| Kbang | Krong | 3 | 0 | 1 |
| Dak Roong | 2 | 0 | 0 | |
| Kon Pne | 0 | 0 | 1 | |
| Mang Yang | Ayun | 3 | 1 | 1 |
| Đak Jo Ta | 1 | 0 | 0 | |
| Hra | ||||
| Dak Doa | Ha Dong | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| Total | 9 | 1 | 3 |
Cooperatives play the role of supporting and directing agricultural production for farmers in the communes. Cooperatives will often be the focal point to supply high quality seedlings and fertilizers to farmers. In addition, the cooperation will play the role of finding output for local agricultural products by linking with processing companies and purchasing companies. However, the activities of most of the Cooperatives, such as in Kon Pne, Kroong, here are still very weak at present, there is no clear orientation to develop agricultural products. Farmers still produce products by themselves in the traditional way, with a small area, few products, and unstable quality. So, they have a low selling price.
By 2022, in the buffer zone of KKKNP, there are 2 communes, Ayun and Ha Dong, achieving a 3-star rating of OCOP product (One Commune-One product) for 5 products. In which, Ayun commune has 4 products including: Dried bamboo shoots, Litsea cubeba essential oil, Litsea cubeba oil room spray, Lemongrass salt. These are all products produced by Quyet Tien Agriculture and Forestry Cooperative. Ha Dong commune has a product that is Anh Tuan dried bamboo shoots (Dried bamboo shoots) produced and registered by Dao Anh Tuan business household
In addition, Ayun commune has had a link with Ba Cham Company Limited to produce and consume Ba Cham rice, a specialty rice of the Bahnar people in Mang Yang. The production area is 24.25ha with 75 participating households, the yield is 4.7 tons/ha. The production of indigenous products with economic value can be a good direction for the economic development of local people in the coming time.
6.2.1 Formal Economic Activities
In the buffer zone of KKKNP, poor households and ethnic minorities account for high proportion. The interview results at the buffer zone communes in 2021 show that 90% of the interviewees are farmers and their livelihood depend on agricultural activities (Table 8, Figure 11). The main crops include annual crops (e.g., rice, maize, cassava, vegetables and beans) and perennial crops (e.g., coffee, Litsea sp., fruit trees). The livelihood of human beings in the buffer zone still highly depends on harvesting NTFPs in natural forests. In addition, the protection of forest areas allocated to the community is also a stable income-enhancing job for local people.
Table 7. Key information of local community in buffer zone of KKKNP
| ID | Variable | Information |
| 1 | Ethnic minority | 114 (Bahnar: 110; Nung: 4) |
| 2 | Average number of family member | 5 |
| 3 | Average number of labours in family | 3 |
| 4 | Monthly income | 2.5 million VND (~ 120 USD) |
| 5 | Main income source | Agricultural production: 90% Other works: Free workers, rubber tapping, small trader, grocery seller |
| 6 | Household status | 60.2% of poor and near poor households: |
| 7 | Living house status | 47.6% of makeshift houses |
| 8 | Food scarce | 66% of households sometime lack food in the year. |
| 9 | Time of food scarce | Scarcest from August to December |
| 10 | Measures to overcome food scarce | Borrowing from relatives and neighbours: 95.5 % Selling crops: 52.9 % Selling livestock: 41.1% Exploiting NTFPs: 39.7% |
| 11 | Rice area | 75% of households have rice field Average area per household: 2800 m2 |
| 12 | Rice productivity | 5.2 ton/ha/year. |
| 13 | Coffee area | 26.2% of households have coffee land Average area per household: 6370 m2 |
| 14 | Income from Coffee | 16.3 million VND/ha/year |
| 15 | Cassava area | 70% of household have cassava area; Average area per household: 9275 m2; Productivity: 6 ton/ha |
| 16 | Income from cassava | 10.7 million VND/ha/year |
| 17 | NTFPs harvesting | 61% of households have harvested NTFPs in KKK NP. In there, 81% is harvested for family use while the rest is harvested for sale and use. |
| 18 | Income from sale NTFPs | 12.4 million VND/year |
| 19 | Distance to area of NTFPs | ~ 6 km |
| 20 | Join the forest protection group | 44% (51/115) |
| 21 | Community forest protect | 1.5 – 8 million VND/Year |
(Data from interviews in 2021; 103 households)
| Figure 11. Agricultural production in buffer zone of KKKNP |
6.2.2 Informal Economic Activities
The economy of the communes in the buffer zone is still very small, the main economic activity is agricultural production with the goal of self-sufficiency. Informal economic activities in this area include activities related to illegal forest product exploitation such as illegal logging, hunting of wild animals. However, information on these activities is difficult to collect, so further investigations are needed to make a more accurate assessment.
6.2.3 Key Livelihood Issues and Challenges
- Low education level among the local communities.
- Ability of applying scientific and technical knowledge in production and business is still limited in the farming practices.
- Locals’ main income is from agricultural production and participation in forestry activities.
- The process of economic and social development in the buffer zone area creates pressure on forest resources and biodiversity of KKKNP. Currently, the prices of forest products are increasing, the production land is not enough to support the increasing population in the buffer zones. Therefore, hunting and trading of wild animals, exploitation of timber and non-timber forest products (orchids, rattan, Scaphium macropodum,etc.), livestock grazing in the bordering areas of the KKKNP will be increasingly complicated.
6.2.4 Non-governmental and Civil Society Initiatives and Support
Over the years, the communes in the buffer zone of KKKNP have received a lot of support from NGOs and civil society organizations (CSOs) such as Dak Doa district charity association, Ho Chi Minh city charity association, etc. These aids are usually organized through coordination with the Red Cross or the Commune People’s Committee support directly to local people.
There are 10 emergency funding packages from sponsors FRF (France), AIPF (USA), Intel Vietnam, British Council; SC International, AAV (UK), ECHO, FAO, USAID, UN Women, WHO, UNICEF, etc. through the Red Cross have contributed to supporting people to stabilize their lives. In addition to supporting food, clean water, health care, and seedlings, these organizations have also trained people to develop their livelihoods, and food security, and raise awareness and capacity for the community on risk reduction about disasters.
At present, the local people are receiving supports from other projects such as:
- Project of Supporting and taking care of the poor health in the Northern mountainous provinces and the Central Highlands (HEMA): The project has contributed to improving access to quality health services for the poor; help village health workers reach people in the most difficult to reach areas. The project has trained more than 3,000 village health workers. More than 90% of children below 1 year of age are fully vaccinated; nearly 200,000 people are supported by the project with medical examination and treatment costs.”
- Program of Supporting immunization services for Vietnam’s Expanded Immunization Program, 2008-2011″ funded by the Global Alliance for Vaccines and Immunization (GAVI).
- Project of building community capacity in development initiatives” funded by the Government of Ireland: There were 831 community initiatives on climate change adaptation livelihood models, child protection, nutrition, clean water and sanitation, bringing benefits to more than 100,000 people, of which 55% are women and 8% are disabled. The project trained for 27 commune monitoring boards and 231 village development boards and community groups on community development methods, knowledge of farming and livestock, promoting gender equality.
- The project “Emergency support to overcome drought and saltwater intrusion in the South-Central region, Central Highlands and Mekong Delta” is funded by the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF).
6.3 Women and Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities
- Political and social activities
The democracy and justice of the Bahnar are evidently expressed in social practice. There have been records that the disadvantaged groups are paid attention in the fields of economy, social relations, cultural activities and beliefs. The centralization, publicity and transparency in handling conflicts of interests have created social justice for disadvantaged groups in general and women in particular in Bahnar society (Nhung, 2019).
Bahnar women are observed to actively participate in social work and contribute much to activities of mass organizations. In Bahnar communities, there are a number of Bahnar women who are nominated as village heads. The women also work with mass organizations to mobilize villagers to change their habits of raising cattle in their households to preserve environmental sanitation and health, mobilize people to use settling tanks for clean water, to bring their children to schools and sensitize women in reproductive health and family planning.
- Access to education
Learning and access to education of Bahnar girls and other ethnic minorities in the region are considered low. Poverty is the biggest barrier. In addition, ethnic minority girls face other barriers such as having to work, inadequate family awareness of the benefits of education, lack of school and teaching facilities.
- Labor employment
The local workforce includes 19,777 employees including 10,090 male and 9,687 female, equivalent to 48.9%. Most of the workers are engaged in farming, only a few are engaged in both farming and other side jobs with low average income and jobs are unstable.
- Domestic violence
The Bahnar have customary laws that clearly define the responsibilities and behaviours of each individual in marriage and family relationships as well as regulations on physical abuse. Accordingly, the crimes of raping and beating women are classified as felonies and are properly punished by a village’s adjudication community run by the prestigious Village Elder and village chiefs and members of mass organizations. The issue needs to be concerned here is how to increase women’s awareness and knowledge about the provisions of customary law in particular and the law of the state in general to protect them against domestic violence.
- Health care
Health care of people in the locality has achieved some results. The grassroots health care network has been strengthened. Each commune has a local health station. Some communes have been upgraded with dispensaries and increased the number of medical staff and doctors. National preventive health programs have been implemented in a timely and effective manner, such as programs for the prevention and control of goiter, leprosy, malaria, expanded immunization program, etc.
6.3.1 Women and IPLC Challenges
- Women of minorities often have to bear many responsibilities for their families such as working in the farms to support the family income, taking care of family members and house chores and left little time for social activities.
- There are limited policies and incentives to support and encourage women’s participation in social activities.
- The increasing population also resulted in higher demand for food, whilts as the farming practices with outdated farming tools and technology, cannot sufficiently support the present demand. Thus, this made the demand for agricultural land use increased (Hoan, 2017).
- The local authorities have not properly paid attention to planning of production land to improve productivity, improve locals’ income generationthrough sustainable agroforestry and application of science and technology (Hoan, 2017). Therefore, there is a need to support the locals on how to effectively and sustainably use land resources and how to apply mix-cropping practice to increase income and efficiency of land use.
- The ability to examine and treat diseases for people of commune health stations is limited. The stations health facilities e.g. equipment, modern medicine could not meet the needs of the people.
6.3.2 Opportunities
- Legislation, policies and governmental supports
In order to protect women’s legitimate rights and interests as well as promote gender equality, Women’s Unions have been allowed by the state to operate at four administrative levels of central, provincial, district and commune ones. The Women’s Union has the role of mobilizing and supporting women to improve their capacity and qualification, improve their material and spiritual lives and build a happy family; The Women’s Union also performs the work of propagating and educating women about the State’s laws, thereby creating conditions for women to be aware of the basic rights stipulated in Vietnamese law.
The Vietnam Women’s Union (VWU) is a mass organization, also a member of of the Vietnam Fatherland Front, the ASEAN Confederation of Women’s Organizations (ACWO), and the Women’s International Democratic Federation (WIDF). The VWU represents the legitimate rights and interests of Vietnamese women; strive for women’s development and gender equality.
In addition, the government also issued a number of policies/programs to support ethnic minority women such as: the program on supporting gender equality activities in ethnic minority areas in the period of 2018-2025; policy of supporting poor ethnic minority women when giving birth according to population policy (Decree No. 39/2015/ND-CP); support for rapid and sustainable poverty reduction (Resolution No. 30 / A / 2008 / NQ-CP); Program “Communication on gender equality in ethnic minority and mountainous areas until 2030, phase I from 2021-2025”.
At the locality, Gia Lai Provincial People’s Committee in recent years has promoted activities for gender equality and the advancement of women. In 2019, 6 main contents were implemented, including: promoting propaganda, dissemination and education activities on gender equality policies and laws; improving the capacity and effectiveness of state management on gender equality; continuing to implement the national action plan on gender equality and the project “Prevention of domestic violence on the basis of gender equality”; strengthening inter-sectoral coordination in order to well implement activities for the advancement of women; organizing activities in response to Action Month for Gender Equality and Gender-Based Violence Prevention and Control; strengthening the activities of the Committee for the Advancement of Women.
- The Bahnar community get benefits from protecting contracted forest areas
Nearly 18,000 hectares have been contracted to 26 Bahnar village communities for protection. Every year, each village receives 250 million VND of contracted funding for forest protection. This funding is divided equally among households while one part of this funding is used to buy plows and water pumps for general production and capital support for poor households. From 2015 to 2020, KKK NP paid households contracted to protect forests and provide forest environmental services with an amount of 27.536 billion VND, contributing to increasing incomes and improving livelihoods for nearly 772 Bahnar ethnic minority households living in the buffer zone of Kon Ka Kinh National Park.
- Investment policy for ecotourism development of Gia Lai province
Gia Lai province determines the goal of developing eco-tourism into a spearhead economic sector of the locality; in which attention is paid to the conservation and development of traditional craft villages, investment in infrastructure to develop tourism services in the locality in general and especially in the Kon Ka Kinh NP area in particular. This is a favorable condition to promote livelihood development and increase income for indigenous people in general and Bahnar women with brocade weaving and rattan basket weaving in particular.
- Investment in socio-economic development in the buffer zone
In the period of 2017-2020, the buffer zone of Kon Ka Kinh National Park has been supported with a budget of 3.28 billion VND to invest in infrastructure and some production equipment and machinery. In the period of 2021-2030, the buffer zone has been planned to be granted a budget of VND 27.883 billion to develop the economy, build models for agricultural and forestry extension, support scattered tree planting, and build green boundaries for the planning area of agricultural production land (swidden cultivation), raise public awareness on forest protection and development, support training and restore traditional jobs and indigenous culture.
6.4 Conservation Challenges
KKKNP is an area diverse in species, especially species with high economic value, so this is a great challenge for the NP staff to protect nature. In addition, the economic development of the communities living around the NP also creates considerable pressure on the maintenance of the intact ecosystem.
6.4.1 Species of Conservation Significance
The endangered species with conservation significance have been focused by KKKNP are described in the Table 9 below.
Table 8. Biodiversity conservation focuses in KKKNP in 2020 – 2030.
| ID | Biodiversity conservation focus |
| 1 | Investigation and conservation of medicinal plant resources and cultivable potential in KKKNP |
| 2 | Investigation, planning for conservation and sustainable use of NTFPs in KKKNP |
| 3 | Conservation of Muntiacus truongsonensis species in KKKNP |
| 4 | Conservation and development of Pterocarpus macrocarpus species in KKKNP |
| 5 | Investigate and monitor mammal and primates |
| 6 | Investigate and monitor Carnivora |
| 7 | Investigate the distribution of conifer species in KKKNP |
| 8 | Create of new positioning plots to study forest succession |
| 9 | Investigation and monitoring of pests, diseases and invasive species to conserve biodiversity in KKKNP. |
| 10 | Investigation, replanting and conservation of endangered and rare species. |
| 11 | Investigate the current status and propose solutions to conserve and protect Otters (Lutrinae) species in KKKNP |
| 12 | Investigate the current status and propose solutions to conserve and protect turtle species in KKKNP |
| 13 | Investigate the current status and propose solutions to conserve and protect Pangolins species in KKKNP |
| 14 | Investigate and create a fish species list in KKKNP |
| 15 | Investigate the current status and propose solutions to conserve and protect Marbled cat species in KKKNP |
6.4.2 Effects of Agriculture on Biodiversity
The development of the agricultural economy has significantly improved the livelihood of people in the buffer zone of Kon Ka Kinh National Park. However, the expansion of agricultural areas creates a lot of issues in biodiversity conservation activities.
The first problem is the encroachment of natural forests for farming. Population growth leading to a lack of agricultural land is a problem in the buffer zone communes of KKKNP. About 60% of the interviewees (69/115) said that they are feeling a lack of land to develop farming. According to the report of the People’s Committees of the buffer zone communes, there have been cases of encroachment on forestry land for agricultural cultivation in recent years, such as in Ha Dong commune, there are 5 cases of shifting cultivation in 2020; In 2019, Ayun commune had some cases of deforestation for farming in sub-zone 439 Hier village, in 2018 there were 13 households encroaching on forestry land. Although the farming area of the people has little direct border with the KKKNP, these incidents are also a sign of the great influence of agricultural development on forests, especially conservation.
In addition, the use of pesticides (insecticides, herbicides) also destroys grasslands, pollutes water sources, and destroys soil and water organisms. However, the effects of the use of pesticides have not been specifically evaluated and information is lacking.
In addition, invasive organisms and disease-causing viruses that spread according to human livelihood activities such as animal husbandry and cultivation are also at a very high risk of affecting the biodiversity of KKKNP.
Population growth leads to an increase in agricultural activities in the buffer zone, which will have a significant impact on the forest and biodiversity of KKKNP.
6.4.3 Natural Resource Issues
KKKNP faces many problems in forest resource management and biodiversity protection. Deforestation and exploitation of precious species such as Fokienia hodginsii, Dalbergia cochinchinensis, etc still take place. The inter-commune roads such as the road to Ha Dong commune, and the road to Kon Pne commune running into the middle of the NP have increased forest access for illegal loggers.
People in the buffer zone have been exploiting NTFPs (orchids, rattan, honey, bamboo shoots, medicinal plants, and edible nuts) in non-sustainable way in KKKNP. The exploitation of some species in large numbers threatens the survival of these species in the wild, such as Anoectochilus setaceus, Fibraurea tinctoria, and Coscinium fenestratum, etc. Currently, there is no data on assessing the level of exploitation of NTFPs in KKKNP, and it is difficult for the park to control the illegal harvesting. At present, the benefit-sharing mechanism of PFES for local people is still not well-developed. This also often lead to potential conflicts among communities.
The forest protection force is considered small when compared to the size of area that they are tasked to monitor and patrol. Therefore, it is not effective as anticipated in monitoring the illegal activities. The forest protection force is also not responsible to apprehend violators but only to advise and record the illegal activities incidents. More than 75% (16/21) of the staff of the forest protection force interviewed on the other hand, felt that they were working in a difficult and dangerous environment, lacking protective equipment and low benefits.
6.4.4 Barriers to Sustainable Use
In the buffer zone of Kon Ka Kinh National Park, the main barriers to sustainable use of natural resources are briefly described as follows:
- In Kon Ka Kinh National Park, socio-economic development needs are the main barrier to sustainable use of natural resources. For instance, Cochard et al. (2017) has showed that deforestation in the Central Highland is mainly induced by crop expansion (coffee, rubber, pepper) and associated immigration and population growth.
- Besides, living habits and awareness levels of people living near forests are also a barrier to sustainable use of natural resources. Nguyen Van Hoan (2016) also said that forest use and farming practices also have a great impact on natural resources in Kon Ka Kinh National Park.